Cyclic nucleotides are second messengers generated by cyclase enzymes from precursor triphosphates and hydrolysed by phosphodiesterases. The cellular actions of these cyclic nucleotides are mediated through activation of protein kinases (cAMP- and cGMP-dependent protein kinases), ion channels (cyclic nucleotide-gated, CNG, and hyperpolarization and cyclic nucleotide-gated, HCN) and guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs, Epac).

Adenylyl cyclase (ENSF00000000188), E.C. 4.6.1.1, converts ATP to cAMP and diphosphate. Mammalian membrane-bound adenylyl cyclases are typically made up of two clusters of six TM domains separating two intracellular, overlapping catalytic domains that are the target for the nonselective activators forskolin, NKH477 (except AC9, [39]) and Gα_s (the stimulatory G protein α subunit). adenosine and its derivatives (e.g. 2',5'-dideoxyadenosine), acting through the P-site, appear to be physiological inhibitors of adenylyl cyclase activity [51]. Three families of adenylyl cyclase are distinguishable: calmodulin-stimulated (AC1, AC3 and AC8), Ca²⁺-inhibitable (AC5 and AC6) and Ca²⁺-insensitive (AC2, AC4 and AC7) forms.

NO has been proposed to inhibit AC5 and AC6 selectively [23], although it is unclear whether this phenomenon is of physiological significance. A soluble adenylyl cyclase has been described (ENSG00000143199, [3]), unaffected by either Gα or Gβγ subunits, which has been suggested to be a cytoplasmic bicarbonate (pH-insensitive) sensor [6].

Soluble guanylyl cyclase (GTP diphosphate-lyase (cyclising)), E.C. 4.6.1.2, is a heterodimer comprising α and β chains, both of which have two subtypes in man (predominantly α1β1; [58]). A haem group is associated with the β chain and is the target for the endogenous ligand NO (NO•), and, potentially, carbon monoxide [16]. The enzyme converts guanosine-5'-triphosphate (GTP) to the intracellular second messenger 3',5'-guanosine monophosphate (cGMP).

ODQ also shows activity at other haem-containing proteins [12], while YC1 may also inhibit cGMP-hydrolysing phosphodiesterases [15,18].

Epacs are members of a family of guanine nucleotide exchange factors (ENSFM00250000000899), which also includes RapGEF5 (GFR, KIAA0277, MR-GEF, ENSG00000136237) and RapGEFL1 (Link-GEFII, ENSG00000108352). They are activated endogenously by cAMP and with some pharmacological selectivity by 8-pCPT-2'-O-Me-cAMP [10]. Once activated, Epacs induce an enhanced activity of the monomeric G proteins, Rap1 and Rap2 by facilitating binding of GTP in place of GDP, leading to activation of phospholipase C [42].

3',5'-Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs, 3',5'-cyclic-nucleotide 5'-nucleotidohydrolase), E.C. 3.1.4.17, catalyse the hydrolysis of a 3',5'-cyclic nucleotide (usually cAMP or cGMP). IBMX is a nonselective inhibitor with an IC₅₀ value in the millimolar range for all isoforms except PDE 8A, 8B and 9A. A 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide 3'-phosphodiesterase (E.C. 3.1.4.37 CNPase) activity is associated with myelin formation in the development of the CNS.

PDE1A, 1B and 1C appear to act as soluble homodimers, while PDE2A is a membrane-bound homodimer. EHNA is also an inhibitor of adenosine deaminase (E.C. 3.5.4.4). PDE3A and PDE3B are membrane-bound.

PDE4 isoforms are essentially cAMP specific. The potency of YM976 at other members of the PDE4 family has not been reported. PDE4B–D long forms are inhibited by extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)-mediated phosphorylation [24-25]. PDE4A–D splice variants can be membrane-bound or cytosolic [26]. PDE4 isoforms may be labelled with [³H]rolipram.

PDE6 is a membrane-bound tetramer composed of two catalytic chains (PDE6A or PDE6C and PDE6B), an inhibitory chain (PDE6G or PDE6H) and the PDE6D chain. The enzyme is essentially cGMP specific and is activated by the α-subunit of transducin (Gα_t) and inhibited by sildenafil, zaprinast and dipyridamole with potencies lower than those observed for PDE5A. Defects in PDE6B are a cause of retinitis pigmentosa and congenital stationary night blindness.

Borland, G; Smith, BO; Yarwood, SJ. (2009) EPAC proteins transduce diverse cellular actions of cAMP. Br. J. Pharmacol., 158 (1): 70-86. [PMID:19210747]

Cerra, MC; Pellegrino, D. (2007) Cardiovascular cGMP-generating systems in physiological and pathological conditions. Curr. Med. Chem., 14 (5): 585-99. [PMID:17346149]

Cheng, X; Ji, Z; Tsalkova, T; Mei, F. (2008) Epac and PKA: a tale of two intracellular cAMP receptors. Acta Biochim. Biophys. Sin. (Shanghai), 40 (7): 651-62. [PMID:18604457]

Feldman, RD; Gros, R. (2007) New insights into the regulation of cAMP synthesis beyond GPCR/G protein activation: implications in cardiovascular regulation. Life Sci., 81 (4): 267-71. [PMID:17604058]

Gloerich, M; Bos, JL. (2010) Epac: defining a new mechanism for cAMP action. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol., 50: 355-75. [PMID:20055708]

Grandoch, M; Roscioni, SS; Schmidt, M. (2010) The role of Epac proteins, novel cAMP mediators, in the regulation of immune, lung and neuronal function. Br. J. Pharmacol., 159 (2): 265-84. [PMID:19912228]

Holz, GG; Chepurny, OG; Schwede, F. (2008) Epac-selective cAMP analogs: new tools with which to evaluate the signal transduction properties of cAMP-regulated guanine nucleotide exchange factors. Cell. Signal., 20 (1): 10-20. [PMID:17716863]

Jackson, EB; Mukhopadhyay, S; Tulis, DA. (2007) Pharmacologic modulators of soluble guanylate cyclase/cyclic guanosine monophosphate in the vascular system - from bench top to bedside. Curr Vasc Pharmacol, 5 (1): 1-14. [PMID:17266609]

Métrich, M; Berthouze, M; Morel, E; Crozatier, B; Gomez, AM; Lezoualc'h, F. (2010) Role of the cAMP-binding protein Epac in cardiovascular physiology and pathophysiology. Pflugers Arch., 459 (4): 535-46. [PMID:19855995]

Roscioni, SS; Elzinga, CR; Schmidt, M. (2008) Epac: effectors and biological functions. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol., 377 (4-6): 345-57. [PMID:18176800]

Schmidt, M; Sand, C; Jakobs, KH; Michel, MC; Weernink, PA. (2007) Epac and the cardiovascular system. Curr Opin Pharmacol, 7 (2): 193-200. [PMID:17276729]

Willoughby, D; Cooper, DM. (2007) Organization and Ca2+ regulation of adenylyl cyclases in cAMP microdomains. Physiol. Rev., 87 (3): 965-1010. [PMID:17615394]

1. Aoki, M; Kobayashi, M; Ishikawa, J; Saita, Y; Terai, Y; Takayama, K; Miyata, K; Yamada, T. (2000) A novel phosphodiesterase type 4 inhibitor, YM976 (4-(3-chlorophenyl)-1,7-diethylpyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidin-2(1H)-one), with little emetogenic activity. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 295 (1): 255-60. [PMID:10991987]

2. Boess, FG; Hendrix, M; van der Staay, FJ; Erb, C; Schreiber, R; van Staveren, W; de Vente, J; Prickaerts, J; Blokland, A; Koenig, G. (2004) Inhibition of phosphodiesterase 2 increases neuronal cGMP, synaptic plasticity and memory performance. Neuropharmacology, 47 (7): 1081-92. [PMID:15555642]

3. Buck, J; Sinclair, ML; Schapal, L; Cann, MJ; Levin, LR. (1999) Cytosolic adenylyl cyclase defines a unique signaling molecule in mammals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 96 (1): 79-84. [PMID:9874775]

4. Cali, JJ; Zwaagstra, JC; Mons, N; Cooper, DM; Krupinski, J. (1994) Type VIII adenylyl cyclase. A Ca2+/calmodulin-stimulated enzyme expressed in discrete regions of rat brain. J. Biol. Chem., 269 (16): 12190-5. [PMID:8163524]

5. Chen, J; Iyengar, R. (1993) Inhibition of cloned adenylyl cyclases by mutant-activated Gi-alpha and specific suppression of type 2 adenylyl cyclase inhibition by phorbol ester treatment. J. Biol. Chem., 268 (17): 12253-6. [PMID:8389756]

6. Chen, Y; Cann, MJ; Litvin, TN; Iourgenko, V; Sinclair, ML; Levin, LR; Buck, J. (2000) Soluble adenylyl cyclase as an evolutionarily conserved bicarbonate sensor. Science, 289 (5479): 625-8. [PMID:10915626]

7. Chen, Y; Harry, A; Li, J; Smit, MJ; Bai, X; Magnusson, R; Pieroni, JP; Weng, G; Iyengar, R. (1997) Adenylyl cyclase 6 is selectively regulated by protein kinase A phosphorylation in a region involved in Galphas stimulation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 94 (25): 14100-4. [PMID:9391159]

8. Choi, EJ; Xia, Z; Storm, DR. (1992) Stimulation of the type III olfactory adenylyl cyclase by calcium and calmodulin. Biochemistry, 31 (28): 6492-8. [PMID:1633161]

9. Corbin, JD; Turko, IV; Beasley, A; Francis, SH. (2000) Phosphorylation of phosphodiesterase-5 by cyclic nucleotide-dependent protein kinase alters its catalytic and allosteric cGMP-binding activities. Eur. J. Biochem., 267 (9): 2760-7. [PMID:10785399]

10. Enserink, JM; Christensen, AE; de Rooij, J; van Triest, M; Schwede, F; Genieser, HG; Døskeland, SO; Blank, JL; Bos, JL. (2002) A novel Epac-specific cAMP analogue demonstrates independent regulation of Rap1 and ERK. Nat. Cell Biol., 4 (11): 901-6. [PMID:12402047]

11. Fawcett, L; Baxendale, R; Stacey, P; McGrouther, C; Harrow, I; Soderling, S; Hetman, J; Beavo, JA; Phillips, SC. (2000) Molecular cloning and characterization of a distinct human phosphodiesterase gene family: PDE11A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 97 (7): 3702-7. [PMID:10725373]

12. Feelisch, M; Kotsonis, P; Siebe, J; Clement, B; Schmidt, HH. (1999) The soluble guanylyl cyclase inhibitor 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3,-a] quinoxalin-1-one is a nonselective heme protein inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase and other cytochrome P-450 enzymes involved in nitric oxide donor bioactivation. Mol. Pharmacol., 56 (2): 243-53. [PMID:10419542]

13. Fisher, DA; Smith, JF; Pillar, JS; St Denis, SH; Cheng, JB. (1998) Isolation and characterization of PDE8A, a novel human cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 246 (3): 570-7. [PMID:9618252]

14. Fisher, DA; Smith, JF; Pillar, JS; St Denis, SH; Cheng, JB. (1998) Isolation and characterization of PDE9A, a novel human cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase. J. Biol. Chem., 273 (25): 15559-64. [PMID:9624146]

15. Friebe, A; Müllershausen, F; Smolenski, A; Walter, U; Schultz, G; Koesling, D. (1998) YC-1 potentiates nitric oxide- and carbon monoxide-induced cyclic GMP effects in human platelets. Mol. Pharmacol., 54 (6): 962-7. [PMID:9855623]

16. Friebe, A; Schultz, G; Koesling, D. (1996) Sensitizing soluble guanylyl cyclase to become a highly CO-sensitive enzyme. EMBO J., 15 (24): 6863-8. [PMID:9003762]

17. Fujishige, K; Kotera, J; Michibata, H; Yuasa, K; Takebayashi, S; Okumura, K; Omori, K. (1999) Cloning and characterization of a novel human phosphodiesterase that hydrolyzes both cAMP and cGMP (PDE10A). J. Biol. Chem., 274 (26): 18438-45. [PMID:10373451]

18. Galle, J; Zabel, U; Hübner, U; Hatzelmann, A; Wagner, B; Wanner, C; Schmidt, HH. (1999) Effects of the soluble guanylyl cyclase activator, YC-1, on vascular tone, cyclic GMP levels and phosphodiesterase activity. Br. J. Pharmacol., 127 (1): 195-203. [PMID:10369473]

19. Gao, BN; Gilman, AG. (1991) Cloning and expression of a widely distributed (type IV) adenylyl cyclase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 88 (22): 10178-82. [PMID:1946437]

20. Gardner, C; Robas, N; Cawkill, D; Fidock, M. (2000) Cloning and characterization of the human and mouse PDE7B, a novel cAMP-specific cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 272 (1): 186-92. [PMID:10872825]

21. Garthwaite, J; Southam, E; Boulton, CL; Nielsen, EB; Schmidt, K; Mayer, B. (1995) Potent and selective inhibition of nitric oxide-sensitive guanylyl cyclase by 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one. Mol. Pharmacol., 48 (2): 184-8. [PMID:7544433]

22. Hayashi, M; Matsushima, K; Ohashi, H; Tsunoda, H; Murase, S; Kawarada, Y; Tanaka, T. (1998) Molecular cloning and characterization of human PDE8B, a novel thyroid-specific isozyme of 3',5'-cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 250 (3): 751-6. [PMID:9784418]

23. Hill, J; Howlett, A; Klein, C. (2000) Nitric oxide selectively inhibits adenylyl cyclase isoforms 5 and 6. Cell. Signal., 12 (4): 233-7. [PMID:10781930]

24. Hoffmann, R; Baillie, GS; MacKenzie, SJ; Yarwood, SJ; Houslay, MD. (1999) The MAP kinase ERK2 inhibits the cyclic AMP-specific phosphodiesterase HSPDE4D3 by phosphorylating it at Ser579. EMBO J., 18 (4): 893-903. [PMID:10022832]

25. Hoffmann, R; Wilkinson, IR; McCallum, JF; Engels, P; Houslay, MD. (1998) cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase HSPDE4D3 mutants which mimic activation and changes in rolipram inhibition triggered by protein kinase A phosphorylation of Ser-54: generation of a molecular model. Biochem. J., 333 ( Pt 1): 139-49. [PMID:9639573]

26. Houslay, MD; Adams, DR. (2003) PDE4 cAMP phosphodiesterases: modular enzymes that orchestrate signalling cross-talk, desensitization and compartmentalization. Biochem. J., 370 (Pt 1): 1-18. [PMID:12444918]

27. Ishikawa, Y; Katsushika, S; Chen, L; Halnon, NJ; Kawabe, J; Homcy, CJ. (1992) Isolation and characterization of a novel cardiac adenylylcyclase cDNA. J. Biol. Chem., 267 (19): 13553-7. [PMID:1618857]

28. Iwami, G; Kawabe, J; Ebina, T; Cannon, PJ; Homcy, CJ; Ishikawa, Y. (1995) Regulation of adenylyl cyclase by protein kinase A. J. Biol. Chem., 270 (21): 12481-4. [PMID:7759492]

29. Jacobowitz, O; Chen, J; Premont, RT; Iyengar, R. (1993) Stimulation of specific types of Gs-stimulated adenylyl cyclases by phorbol ester treatment. J. Biol. Chem., 268 (6): 3829-32. [PMID:8440678]

30. Kawabe, J; Iwami, G; Ebina, T; Ohno, S; Katada, T; Ueda, Y; Homcy, CJ; Ishikawa, Y. (1994) Differential activation of adenylyl cyclase by protein kinase C isoenzymes. J. Biol. Chem., 269 (24): 16554-8. [PMID:8206971]

31. Lai, HL; Lin, TH; Kao, YY; Lin, WJ; Hwang, MJ; Chern, Y. (1999) The N terminus domain of type VI adenylyl cyclase mediates its inhibition by protein kinase C. Mol. Pharmacol., 56 (3): 644-50. [PMID:10462552]

32. Loughney, K; Martins, TJ; Harris, EA; Sadhu, K; Hicks, JB; Sonnenburg, WK; Beavo, JA; Ferguson, K. (1996) Isolation and characterization of cDNAs corresponding to two human calcium, calmodulin-regulated, 3',5'-cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases. J. Biol. Chem., 271 (2): 796-806. [PMID:8557689]

33. Lustig, KD; Conklin, BR; Herzmark, P; Taussig, R; Bourne, HR. (1993) Type II adenylylcyclase integrates coincident signals from Gs, Gi, and Gq. J. Biol. Chem., 268 (19): 13900-5. [PMID:8390980]

34. Michaeli, T; Bloom, TJ; Martins, T; Loughney, K; Ferguson, K; Riggs, M; Rodgers, L; Beavo, JA; Wigler, M. (1993) Isolation and characterization of a previously undetected human cAMP phosphodiesterase by complementation of cAMP phosphodiesterase-deficient Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J. Biol. Chem., 268 (17): 12925-32. [PMID:8389765]

35. Michie, AM; Lobban, M; Müller, T; Harnett, MM; Houslay, MD. (1996) Rapid regulation of PDE-2 and PDE-4 cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase activity following ligation of the T cell antigen receptor on thymocytes: analysis using the selective inhibitors erythro-9-(2-hydroxy-3-nonyl)-adenine (EHNA) and rolipram. Cell. Signal., 8 (2): 97-110. [PMID:8730511]

36. Mochida, H; Takagi, M; Inoue, H; Noto, T; Yano, K; Fujishige, K; Sasaki, T; Yuasa, K; Kotera, J; Omori, K; et al.. (2002) Enzymological and pharmacological profile of T-0156, a potent and selective phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 456 (1-3): 91-8. [PMID:12450574]

37. Onda, T; Hashimoto, Y; Nagai, M; Kuramochi, H; Saito, S; Yamazaki, H; Toya, Y; Sakai, I; Homcy, CJ; Nishikawa, K; et al.. (2001) Type-specific regulation of adenylyl cyclase. Selective pharmacological stimulation and inhibition of adenylyl cyclase isoforms. J. Biol. Chem., 276 (51): 47785-93. [PMID:11602596]

38. Paterson, JM; Smith, SM; Simpson, J; Grace, OC; Sosunov, AA; Bell, JE; Antoni, FA. (2000) Characterisation of human adenylyl cyclase IX reveals inhibition by Ca(2+)/Calcineurin and differential mRNA plyadenylation. J. Neurochem., 75 (4): 1358-67. [PMID:10987815]

39. Premont, RT; Matsuoka, I; Mattei, MG; Pouille, Y; Defer, N; Hanoune, J. (1996) Identification and characterization of a widely expressed form of adenylyl cyclase. J. Biol. Chem., 271 (23): 13900-7. [PMID:8662814]

40. Sasaki, T; Kotera, J; Yuasa, K; Omori, K. (2000) Identification of human PDE7B, a cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 271 (3): 575-83. [PMID:10814504]

41. Schindler, U; Strobel, H; Schönafinger, K; Linz, W; Löhn, M; Martorana, PA; Rütten, H; Schindler, PW; Busch, AE; Sohn, M; et al.. (2006) Biochemistry and pharmacology of novel anthranilic acid derivatives activating heme-oxidized soluble guanylyl cyclase. Mol. Pharmacol., 69 (4): 1260-8. [PMID:16332991]

42. Schmidt, M; Evellin, S; Weernink, PA; von Dorp, F; Rehmann, H; Lomasney, JW; Jakobs, KH. (2001) A new phospholipase-C-calcium signalling pathway mediated by cyclic AMP and a Rap GTPase. Nat. Cell Biol., 3 (11): 1020-4. [PMID:11715024]

43. Sinnarajah, S; Dessauer, CW; Srikumar, D; Chen, J; Yuen, J; Yilma, S; Dennis, JC; Morrison, EE; Vodyanoy, V; Kehrl, JH. (2001) RGS2 regulates signal transduction in olfactory neurons by attenuating activation of adenylyl cyclase III. Nature, 409 (6823): 1051-5. [PMID:11234015]

44. Smith, SJ; Cieslinski, LB; Newton, R; Donnelly, LE; Fenwick, PS; Nicholson, AG; Barnes, PJ; Barnette, MS; Giembycz, MA. (2004) Discovery of BRL 50481 [3-(N,N-dimethylsulfonamido)-4-methyl-nitrobenzene], a selective inhibitor of phosphodiesterase 7: in vitro studies in human monocytes, lung macrophages, and CD8+ T-lymphocytes. Mol. Pharmacol., 66 (6): 1679-89. [PMID:15371556]

45. Stasch, JP; Becker, EM; Alonso-Alija, C; Apeler, H; Dembowsky, K; Feurer, A; Gerzer, R; Minuth, T; Perzborn, E; Pleiss, U; et al.. (2001) NO-independent regulatory site on soluble guanylate cyclase. Nature, 410 (6825): 212-5. [PMID:11242081]

46. Stasch, JP; Schmidt, P; Alonso-Alija, C; Apeler, H; Dembowsky, K; Haerter, M; Heil, M; Minuth, T; Perzborn, E; Pleiss, U; et al.. (2002) NO- and haem-independent activation of soluble guanylyl cyclase: molecular basis and cardiovascular implications of a new pharmacological principle. Br. J. Pharmacol., 136 (5): 773-83. [PMID:12086987]

47. Sudo, T; Tachibana, K; Toga, K; Tochizawa, S; Inoue, Y; Kimura, Y; Hidaka, H. (2000) Potent effects of novel anti-platelet aggregatory cilostamide analogues on recombinant cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase isozyme activity. Biochem. Pharmacol., 59 (4): 347-56. [PMID:10644042]

48. Tang, WJ; Krupinski, J; Gilman, AG. (1991) Expression and characterization of calmodulin-activated (type I) adenylylcyclase. J. Biol. Chem., 266 (13): 8595-603. [PMID:2022671]

49. Taussig, R; Quarmby, LM; Gilman, AG. (1993) Regulation of purified type I and type II adenylylcyclases by G protein beta gamma subunits. J. Biol. Chem., 268 (1): 9-12. [PMID:8416978]

50. Taussig, R; Tang, WJ; Hepler, JR; Gilman, AG. (1994) Distinct patterns of bidirectional regulation of mammalian adenylyl cyclases. J. Biol. Chem., 269 (8): 6093-100. [PMID:8119955]

51. Tesmer, JJ; Dessauer, CW; Sunahara, RK; Murray, LD; Johnson, RA; Gilman, AG; Sprang, SR. (2000) Molecular basis for P-site inhibition of adenylyl cyclase. Biochemistry, 39 (47): 14464-71. [PMID:11087399]

52. Turko, IV; Ballard, SA; Francis, SH; Corbin, JD. (1999) Inhibition of cyclic GMP-binding cyclic GMP-specific phosphodiesterase (Type 5) by sildenafil and related compounds. Mol. Pharmacol., 56 (1): 124-30. [PMID:10385692]

53. Vemulapalli, S; Watkins, RW; Chintala, M; Davis, H; Ahn, HS; Fawzi, A; Tulshian, D; Chiu, P; Chatterjee, M; Lin, CC; et al.. (1996) Antiplatelet and antiproliferative effects of SCH 51866, a novel type 1 and type 5 phosphodiesterase inhibitor. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol., 28 (6): 862-9. [PMID:8961086]

54. Wang, P; Myers, JG; Wu, P; Cheewatrakoolpong, B; Egan, RW; Billah, MM. (1997) Expression, purification, and characterization of human cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase (PDE4) subtypes A, B, C, and D. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 234 (2): 320-4. [PMID:9177268]

55. Watson, PA; Krupinski, J; Kempinski, AM; Frankenfield, CD. (1994) Molecular cloning and characterization of the type VII isoform of mammalian adenylyl cyclase expressed widely in mouse tissues and in S49 mouse lymphoma cells. J. Biol. Chem., 269 (46): 28893-8. [PMID:7961850]

56. Wayman, GA; Impey, S; Storm, DR. (1995) Ca2+ inhibition of type III adenylyl cyclase in vivo. J. Biol. Chem., 270 (37): 21480-6. [PMID:7665559]

57. Yoshimura, M; Cooper, DM. (1992) Cloning and expression of a Ca(2+)-inhibitable adenylyl cyclase from NCB-20 cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 89 (15): 6716-20. [PMID:1379717]

58. Zabel, U; Weeger, M; La, M; Schmidt, HH. (1998) Human soluble guanylate cyclase: functional expression and revised isoenzyme family. Biochem. J., 335 ( Pt 1): 51-7. [PMID:9742212]

59. Zimmermann, G; Taussig, R. (1996) Protein kinase C alters the responsiveness of adenylyl cyclases to G protein alpha and betagamma subunits. J. Biol. Chem., 271 (43): 27161-6. [PMID:8900209]