The c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) are a family of three enzymes (encoded by three genes) that bind to and phosphorylate c-Jun (a component of the AP-1 early response transcription factor; the other component is c-Fos). JNKs belong to the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family and share the family sensitivity to stress stimuli. JNK pathway activation has positive and negative regulatory effects on downstream proteins. c-Jun, ATF2, ELK1, SMAD4, p53 and HSF1 are amongst the targets that are activated by JNK activity, whereas NFAT4, NFATC1 and STAT3 are inhibited by JNK activity. JNKs contribute to cellular differentiation and apoptosis, and to the inflammatory response [2-3].

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